Countermeasures: Physiological
Description:
Naps taken prior to nocturnal work periods can significantly
improve alertness and performance during the third shift. Naps taken prior to
the third shift may be more beneficial than naps taken during the third
shift.
Representative publications:
Bonnet, M.H. Dealing with shiftwork: Physical fitness,
temperature, and napping. Work and Stress, 1990, 4, 261-274.
Bonnet, M.B. The effect of varying prophylactic naps on performance, alertness and mood throughout a 52-hour continuous operation. Sleep, 1991, 14, 307-315.
Bonnet, M.H. & Arand, D.L. Consolidated and distributed nap schedules and performance. Journal of Sleep Research, 1995, 4, 71-77.
Most recent publications:
Bonnet, M.H. & Arand, D.L. The impact of naps and caffeine on
extended nocturnal performance. Physiology & Behavior, 1994, 56,
103-109.
Bonnet, M.H. Gomez, S. Wirth, O & Arand, D.L. The use of caffeine versus prophylactic naps in sustained performance. Sleep, 1995, 18, 97-104.
Bonnet, M.H. & Arand, D.L. Consolidated and distributed nap schedules and performance. Journal of Sleep Research, 1995, 4, 71-77.
Description:
Representative publications:
Schweitzer, P.K., Muehlbach, M.J., and Walsh, J.K.
Countermeasures for nightwork performance deficits: The effect of napping or
caffeine on continuous performance at night. Work & Stress, 1992,
6, 355-365.
Sugerman, J.L. and Walsh, J.K. Physiological sleep tendency and ability to maintain alertness at night. Sleep, 1989, 12, 106-112.
Most recent publications:
Description:
This study examined the effectiveness of a planned cockpit rest
period to improve alertness and performance in long-haul flight operations.
Co-sponsored and sanctioned by the FAA, it involved the voluntary participation
of two commercial airlines. The results demonstrated that the brief inflight
nap was associated with improved performance and physiological alertness
compared to a no-rest group. The FAA has developed regulatory materials for
implementing planned cockpit rest that is currently under consideration.
Representative publications:
Rosekind, M.R., Graeber, R, Dinges, D.F., Connell, L.J.,
Rountree, M.S., and Gillen, K. (1994). Crew Factors in Flight Operations IX:
Effects of Planned Cockpit Rest on Crew Performance and Alertness in Long-Haul
Operations. (NASA Technical Memorandum No. 108839). Moffett Field, CA: NASA
Ames Research Center.
Most recent publications:
Rosekind, M.R., Smith, R.M., Miller, D.L., Co, E.L., Gregory,
K.B., Webbon, L.L., Gander, P.H., and Lebacqz, J.V. (in press). Alertness
management: strategic naps in operational settings. J. Sleep Res. 4,
(Suppl. 2).
Description:
Caffeine, given in doses ranging from 150-400 mg either by itself
or following naps helps to maintain alertness and performance for at least the
first 24 hours of total sleep deprivation.
Representative publications:
Bonnet, M.H. Gomez, S. Wirth, O & Arand, D.L. The use of
caffeine versus prophylactic naps in sustained performance. Sleep, 1995,
18, 97-104.
Bonnet, M.H. & Arand, D.L. The impact of naps and caffeine on extended nocturnal performance. Physiology & Behavior, 1994, 56, 103-109.
Bonnet, M.H. & Arand, D.L. The use of prophylactic naps and caffeine to maintain performance during a continuous operation. Ergonomics, 1994, 37, 1009-1020.
Most recent publications:
Description:
Representative publications:
Schweitzer, P.K., Muehlbach, M.J., and Walsh, J.K.
Countermeasures for nightwork performance deficits: The effect of napping or
caffeine on continuous performance at night. Work & Stress, 1992,
6, 355-365.
Walsh, J.K. Using psychopharmacological aids to improve waking function and sleep while working nights. Work and Stress 1990, 4(3), 237-243.
Most recent publications:
Muehlbach, M.J., and Walsh, J.K. The effects of caffeine on
simulated night shift work and subsequent daytime sleep. Sleep, 1995,
18, 22-29.
Description:
Melatonin is a hormone that is normally produced by the pineal
gland at night. Recent research indicates that it may be able to combat fatigue
by several mechanisms.
1) Exogenous melatonin administration is able to "reset" the circadian clock. Depending on the time of day of the administration, it can shift circadian rhythms earlier or later; thus it may be able align the peak of the endogenous alertness rhythm with the time of greatest performance demand; likewise it may be able to align the sleep-propensity rhythm with the preferred time for sleep, thereby improving sleep and awake-time alertness. 2) Melatonin may have a direct sleep-promoting action that would be especially useful in allowing people to sleep at atypical times. These two proposed actions of melatonin may be synergistic; for example, it might reduce fatigue related to "jet lag" by promoting circadian rhythm readjustment as well as improving sleep after arrival at the new destination.
Representative publications:
Reman J, Armstron S and Ng KT. Free-running activity rhythms in
the rat: entrainment by melatonin. Science 1983; 219:1089-1091.
Arendt J, Aldhous M, English J, Marks V, Arendt JH, Marks M and Folkard S. Some effects of jet-lag and their alleviation by melatonin. Ergonomics 1987; 30:1379-1393.
Dahlitz M, Alverez B, Vignau J, English J, Arendt J and Parkes JD. Delayed sleep phase syndrome response to melatonin. Lancet 1991; 337:1121-1124.
Lewy A, Ahmed S, Latham-Jackson J and Sack R. Melatonin shifts human circadian rhythms according to a phase-response curve. Chronobiol. Internat. 1992; 9:380-392.
Most recent publications:
Sack RL, Blood ML and Lewy AJ. Melatonin administration promotes
circadian adaptation to night-shift work. Sleep Research 1994; 23:509.
Tzischinsky O and Lavie P. Melatonin possesses time-dependent hypnotic effects. Sleep 1994; 17:638-645.
Hughes RJ, Badia P, French J, Santiago L and Plenzler S. Melatonin induced changes in body temperature and daytime sleep. Sleep Res. 1994; 23:496.
Description:
Representative publications:
Schweitzer, P.K. et al. Effects of estazolam and triazolam on
transient insomnia associated with phase-shifted sleep. Human
Psychopharmacology, 1991, 6, 99-107.
Walsh, J.K. et al. Sleepiness/alertness on a simulated night shift following sleep at home with triazolam. Sleep, 1991, 14, 140-146.
Walsh, J.K. et al. Physiological sleep tendency on a simulated night shift: Adaptation and effects of triazolam. Sleep, 1988, 11, 251-264.
Most recent publications:
Description:
This recommendation was developed under a program with DGAC
involving Air France, UTA, Aeromaritime, Sabena, and Northwest. Some 156 fights
were performed on long-range north-south, east-west airline routes on B747-400,
B767, A310, A320, and A340. A scheme of active/passive vigilance was developed
by the joint team of the Laboratory of Applied Anthropology (LAA) and the
Laboratory of Physiology of Adaptions (LPA) and Airbus Industrie.
Under this scheme, the active pilot would concentrate on maintaining interaction with the flight management and aircraft monitoring systems and perform en-route navigational and communications requirements. The passive pilot would take a rest period spanning 20 to 40 minutes, where he could oversee the operation and/or indulge in relation or remote activities--such as eating, reading, napping. Adequate attention for the efficient and safe progress of the flight will thus be maintained by alternating the active and passive pilots on a periodic basis as mutually agreed, with both pilots being active when operationally required. The suggested time periods should definitely not be longer, as it was demonstrated that prolonged "lonesomeness" (next to a napping fellow pilot) can induce underarousal and consequent lack of vigilance on the part of the active pilot. This scheme was successfully demonstrated on medical terms and implemented by means of the Pilot Guard System.
Representative publications:
Most recent publications:
Description:
Preliminary evaluation with a small sample of aircrew members
showed significant objective (actigraphy) and subjective improvements in
layover and in-flight sleep when using a proprietary "Sleep Training" System.
An R&D effort is underway to refine the "Sleep Training" System and
evaluate its effectiveness with a larger number of pilots, copilots, flight
engineers and various USAF shiftworks using PSG/MSLTs as well as actigraphy and
subjective measures.
Representative publications:
Alsten, C. Downey, R. III and Jackson, T. Preliminary Evaluation
of a "Sleep Training" Program to Enhance the Quality and Quantity of Aircrew
Sleep (Sleep Research 1995, in press).
Jackson, T. & Alsten, C. Replacement of Sedative-Hypnotics with a Multi-Modality, Tape Recorded Insomnia Treatment Program on a Locked Psychiatric Unit (Sleep Research 1995, in press).
Most recent publications:
Description:
Over the years, many fatigue countermeasures have been proposed. To date, only one approach, improved work schedule systems, has proven efficacious long term effects. Improved work schedule systems recognize that cultural, social, individual and chronobiological factors must all be considered in the design of a work system. Our general approach to designing improved work schedule systems features voluntary and confidential worker and organization participation. We think that the formal quantitative evaluation of work schedule changes should be considered a mandatory action, since current knowledge levels make countermeasures more art than science. All evaluators have a clear professional obligation to disseminate their findings in peer-reviewed scientific journals.
Representative publications:
Tepas, D.I. and Monk, T.M. (1987) Work schedules. In: Handbook of
Human Factors, G. Salvendy (Ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Tepas, D.I. and Mahan, R.P. (1989) The many meanings of sleep. Work and Stress, 3, 93-102.
Tepas, D.I., Armstrong, D.R., Carlson, M.L., Duchon, J, Gersten, A. and Lezotte, D.V. (1985) Changing industry to continuous operations: Different strokes for different plants. Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 17, 670-676.
Most recent publications:
Tepas, D.I. (1994) Technological innovation and the management of
alertness and fatigue in the workplace. Human Performance, 7, 165-180.
Paley, M.J. and Tepas, D.I. (1994) Fatigue and the shiftworker: Firefighters working on a rotating shift schedule. Human Factors, 36, 269-284.
Tepas, D.I. (1993) Educational programs for shiftworkers, their families, and prospective shiftworkers. Ergonomics, 36, 199-209.
Description:
The Nightcap vigilance monitor uses an adhesive-backed
piezoelectric film to monitor microscopic upper eye lid movements (ELMs). In a
pilot study, EM frequency correlated with performance on various vigilance and
cognitive tests over 40 hr of sleep deprivation, with Pearson correlation
coefficients in the range of 0.75 to 0.82.
Representative publications:
Helfand R., P. Lavie, & J.A. Hobson (1986). REM/NREM
discrimination via ocular and limb movement monitoring: correlation with
polygraphic data and development of a REM state algorithm. Psychophysiology
23: 334-339.
Mamelak, A., & J.A. Hobson (1989). Nightcap: A home-based sleep-monitoring system. Sleep 12: 157-166.
Stickgold, R., E. Pace-Schott, & J.A. Hobson (1994). A new paradigm for dream research: Mentation reports following spontaneous arousals from REM and NREM sleep recorded in a home setting. Consciousness and Cognition 3: 16-29.
Most recent publications:
Ajilore, O., R. Stickgold, C.D. Rittenhouse & J.A. Hobson
(1995). Nightcap: Laboratory and home-based evaluation of a portable sleep
monitor. Psychophysiology 32: 92-98.
Pace-Schott, E.F., J. Kaji, R. Stickgold & J.A. Hobson (1995). Nightcap measurement of sleep quality in self-described good and poor sleepers. Sleep 17: 688-692.
Stickgold, R. & J.A. Hobson (1994) Home Monitoring of Sleep Onset and Sleep-Onset Mentation using the Nightcap. In Sleep Onset: Normal and abnormal processes (R. Ogilvie & J. Harsh, eds.), pp. 141-161. American Psychological Association Press: Washington.
Description:
The Pilot Guard System (PGS) is a sophisticated timing device,
incorporating pre-set periods of 5, 10, 25, and 45 minutes in PGS mode, and
timing up to 45 minutes in timer mode. It can interface with the electronic
systems on the aircraft fight deck to provide activity monitoring and provide a
means for active/passive vigilance. The system allows one pilot to rest/nap
during periods of low workload, as a means for countering fatigue and improving
alertness.
Representative publications:
Page Aerospace Limited - Pilot Guard System, Background and
System Operations
Most recent publications:
Description:
Continuous shoulder rumble strips on the shoulder of a highway
alert drivers that they have left the traveled roadway.
Representative publications:
Per Garder and John Alexander. "Fatigue Related Accidents and
Continuous Rumble Strips." TRB Report 950132.
Per Garder. "Rumble Strips or Not Along Wide Shoulders Designated for Bicycle Traffic." TRB Preprint 950231.
Per Garder and John Alexander. "Shoulder Rumble Strips for Improving Safety on Rural Interstates. Final Report." Technical Paper 94-4, Maine DOT, Dec. 1994.
Most recent publications: